Lesson 5: The Settings, Processes, Methods, and Tools in Counseling

The Settings, Processes, Methods, and Tools in Counseling

Counselors work in various settings- from government to private sectors, to civil society to school setting. Drawing on a wide range of processes, methods, and tools, counselors are trained to use what is appropriate for the setting and relative to their specialty. There are classical approaches informed by theories to counseling that scaffold their process and selection of methods and tools.

Counseling Approaches

Psychoanalysis

• represented by Sigmund Freud

• a theory of personality, an approach to psychotherapy, and method of investigation founded by Sigmund Freud

• the assumption is that there are inner battles that are waged in a client that are directly responsible for the appearance of symptoms and behavioral problems
• emphasizes the role of early childhood experiences
• early childhood experiences: dictate us of who we are as an adult

Behaviorism

• behavior and mental processes are determined by our environment
• all psychological disorders are a result of maladaptive learning that all behavior is learnt from our environment and symptoms are acquired through classical and operant conditioning

• Classical conditioning – involves learning by association; introduced by Ivan Pavlov
• Operant conditioning – involves learning by reinforcement; introduced by B.F. Skinner

The therapeutic techniques used in this type of treatment are action-based and rooted in the theories of classical conditioning and operant conditioning and utilize the same learning strategies that led to the formation of unwanted behaviors. Behavioral therapy tends to be highly focused on teaching clients new behaviors to minimize or eliminate the issue.

Humanistic Perspective

• behavior and mental processes are determined by our need to fulfill our potential

• attempted to understand the conscious mind, free will, human dignity, and the capacity for self-reflection and growth
• the human potential for change requires only exercise of the distinctively human capacities for choice, creativity, and drive toward self-actualization
• humanistic therapeutic models are rooted in insight and focus on self-development, growth, and responsibilities
• they seek to gain self-empowerment by recognizing their strengths, creativity and choice in the given circumstances

Review. Let’s see how far have you learned from this lesson by identifying the counseling approaches used by the counselors in the following situations.

1. As a counselor, Alyana always believes in the capacity of her client to determine his own destiny and give meaning to his life.
2. In dealing with his clients, Cardo always applies the talk therapy and actively listens to whatever his client is telling him.
3. Flora, an adolescent counselor, explores the early experiences of her client in order to identify the underlying causes of the manifested behavior.
4. Agatha coordinates with dream experts to examine the dreams and its relation to her client’s experiences.
5. As a school counselor, Ericka uses reinforcements to modify the unwanted behaviors of her student-clients.

The Settings in Counseling

• Government Setting – Work with the various government agencies that have counseling services such as social welfare, correctional department, the court system, child and women affairs services, military, police, hospitals, foster homes, and rehabilitation centers.
• Private Sectors Setting – Counselors range from independent providers of services or work for NGOs, or specialized for profit centers and organizations that render a variety of counseling services.
• Civil Society Setting – The context of civil society is generally charities or non-profit and issue-based centers or organizations such as for abused women, abandoned children and elderly, veterans, teachers, professionals or religious groups.
• Community Setting – Has the greatest and widest application of counseling services considering the diversity of people. There are people who are in conflict with the law, socially marginalized, people who suffer loss of all kind, those living in institutional homes, and those experiencing different life transitions.
• School Setting – In the school setting, the role of school counselor is more complex since the needs of students can vary widely.

Tara! Let’s Review! Identify the setting where counselors work based from the following situations.

1. Romina is a licensed professional counselor and works with the various government agencies that provide counseling services especially to correctional departments and child and women affairs services.
2. Cassie works in a charitable institution for abandoned children and abused women.
3. Savannah works in a non-profit-oriented/non-government organization that renders a variety of counseling services.
4. Daniella is working in a public educational institution as a counselor. She provides various services to students and assumes many different responsibilities and tasks based on the particular needs of their clients.
5. Marga provides counseling services to people who are in conflict with the law and socially marginalized individuals and groups.

Source: Disciplines and Ideas in the Applied Social Sciences, Elias M. Sampa. 2017 by Rex Book Store, pp. 49-54.

photo credits from ppt: http://www.google.com

Lesson 4: The Clientele and Audiences of Counseling

The Clientele and Audiences of Counseling

Individuals and groups of people who receive service from various counseling professions constitute the clientele and audience. These individuals and groups vary in their needs and context where they avail of counseling services.

Characteristics of the Clientele and Audiences of Counseling

The clientele and audiences of counseling are normal people. They are not in need of clinical or mental help. They may be the youth in need of guidance at critical moments of their growth, anyone in need of assistance in realizing a change in behavior or attitude, or simply seeking to achieve a goal. What the audience normally calls for in counseling is application or development of social skills, effective communication, spiritual direction, decision-making, and career choices. Sometimes, people need to cope with crisis. Other clientele and audiences of counseling may be people in need of premarital and marital counseling, grief and loss, domestic violence and other types of abuse, or coping with terminal illness, death, and dying.

Needs of Various Types of Clientele and Audiences of Counseling

The needs vary for each type of clientele and audience of counseling. As school guidance counselors, these professionals provide the need for personal guidance by helping students seek more options and find better and more appropriate ones in dealing with situations of stress or simply decision-making. This may include career options. Sometimes, they bridge between family and the school in resolving conflicts that affect students and their families to the extent of becoming a threat to student development and learning.

As job-hunting coaches, counselors provide avenues for people to find necessary information and get employment that is suitable to them. As conflict management providers, these professionals provide the need for principles and theory-based approaches to deal with conflict and deescalate it, if not revolve it positively. They provide ways to manage conflict constructively.

As human resource personnel, these professionals provide the needs common to all workplaces and they are employed in almost all workplaces to deal with various employee needs that aspects of remunerations, social services, compensations, conflict resolution, and discipline. They are designed to keep workers happy and cared for as humans.

As marriage counselors, these professionals provide the need for conflict-resolution skills to parties, couples, and children to deal with various stresses and issues that threaten their unity or peaceful coexistence. Sometimes, their work is to reconcile couples, while at other times, they work to help them part ways in the best possible through available legal instruments such as separation, divorce, or annulment.

As drug abuse and rehabilitation counselors, these professionals meet the need to help people overcome their problems or mitigate some of the most negative effects of drug abuse. Their goal is to facilitate client rehabilitation.

As bereavement counselors, these professionals respond to the need to be helped through loss, such as death in the family, in a way that will help prevent depression and other unhealthy ways of dealing or coping with loss such as committing suicide or giving up on life.

The Individual as Client of Counseling

The most common type of counseling is the individualized type. The individual who needs to be helped to manage well a life-changing situation or personal problem or crisis and other support needs may undergo counseling as an individual. Problems like alcoholism, loss of job, divorce, imprisonment, and rehabilitation can cause of shame and embarrassment. Without acquiring enough strength ad ability to go through such life experience, people are vulnerable and may come out worse.

The Group and Organization as Client of Counseling

Groups exist in communities, organizations, students in schools, teachers in school, and departments in workplaces, and such entity can undergo group counseling to meet counseling needs on that level. The needs can range from desire to reduce conflict or manage it, become more productive as a team or work better together. Some of the group processes and procedures resemble those that are applied to individuals. However, some are very unique to group and organizational context.

The Community as Client of Counseling

When people experience something collectively, which may be socially troubling and constitute the danger of blocking their collective capacity to move on, counseling is necessary to be undertaken on a community level.

Source: Disciplines and Ideas in the Applied Social Sciences, Elias M. Sampa. 2017 by Rex Book Store, pp. 39-41

Lesson 3: The Professionals and Practitioners in the Discipline of Counseling

Defining the Roles, Functions, and Competencies of Counselors

Roles of Counselors

Counseling is a process and a relationship between the client(s) and counselor. The role of the counselor is to assist the person/s (client/s) in realizing a change in behavior or attitude, to assist them to seek achievement of goals, assist them to find help, and in some cases, the role of counselors includes the teaching of social skills, effective communication, spiritual guidance, decision-making, and career choices. A counselor’s role may sometimes include aiding one in coping with a crisis.

Functions of Counselors

• helping a client develop potentials to the fullest
• helping a client plan to utilize his or her potentials to the fullest
• helping a client plan his or her future in accordance with his or her abilities, interests, and needs
• sharing and applying knowledge related to counseling such as counseling theories, tools, and techniques
• administering a wide range of human development services

Competencies of Guidance Counselors

• Counselors have the ability to administer and maintain career guidance and counseling programs.
• They are capable of properly guiding the students toward becoming productive and contributing individuals through informed career choices with reference to appropriate stakeholders.
• They are capable of designing and implementing programs that expose students to the world and value of work and guide, provide, and equip the students with the necessary life skills and values.
• They can administer career advocacy activities.
• Guidance counselors are capable career advocates.
• Guidance counselors can facilitate conduct of career advocacy in collaboration with career advocates and peer facilitators.

Other Competencies that Apply to the Broader Counseling Work

There are set of skills and a body of knowledge to study to be an effective helper in counseling. Culley and Bond (2004) have described all these as foundation skills. They have grouped these foundation skills around three headings: attending and listening, reflective skills, and probing skills.

• Attending and listening – attending and listening skills refer to active listening, which means listening with purpose and responding in such a way that clients are aware that they have both been heard and understood.
• Reflective skills – these skills are concerned with the other person’s frame of reference. For Culley and Bond (2004), reflective skills ‘capture’ what the client is saying and plays it back to them – but in the counselor’s own words. The key skills are restating, paraphrasing, and summarizing.
• Probing skills – these skills facilitate going deeper, asking more directed or leading questions.

Areas of Specialization where Counselors Work

Counselors are practically found in all spheres of human development, transitions, and caregiving. Peterson and Nesenholz (1987) identified 11 major areas:

• Child development and counseling – includes parent education, preschool counseling, early childhood education, child counseling in mental health agencies, and counseling with battered and abused children and their families.

• Adolescent development and counseling – covers middle and high school counseling, psychological education, career development specialist, adolescent counseling in mental health agencies, youth work in a residential facility, and youth probation officer.

• Gerontology – includes counseling of older citizens: pre-retirement counseling, community centers, nursing home counseling, and hospice work.
• Marital relationship counseling – includes premarital counseling, marriage counseling, family counseling, divorce mediation.
• Health – offers possibility for nutrition counseling, exercise and health education, rehabilitation counseling, stress management counseling, holistic health counseling, and genetic counseling.

• Career/lifestyle – includes guidance on choices and decision-making pertaining to career or lifestyle; guidance on career development; provision of educational and occupational information to clients; provision of various forms of educational and occupational information to clients, and may also include provision of needed skills in managing or going through job interviews.
• College and university – college student counseling, student personnel work, residential hall or dormitory counselor, and counselor educator.
• Drugs – covers substance abuse counseling, alcohol counseling, drug counseling, stop smoking program manager, and crisis intervention counseling.
• Consultation – covers agency and corporate consulting, organizational development director, industrial psychology specialist, and training manager.
• Business and industry – include training and development personnel, quality and work-life or quality circles manager, employee assistance programs manager, employee career development officer, or equal opportunity specialist.
• Other specialties – may include phobia counseling, self-management, intrapersonal management, intrapersonal management, and grief counseling.

In all specialties, the counselor could be self-employed as private practitioner or may be employed by the agency, which may be a government or a non-government organization (NGO). In any specialty area, additional education and trainings beyond graudate and post-graduate education are required.

Career Opportunities for Counselors

• Educational and school counselors – they offer personal, educational, social, and academic counseling services. The professionals often work in elementary school, high school, or university settings to help students assess their abilities and resolve personal or social problems, and do so in tandem with teachers and school administrators.
• Vocational or career counselors – These professionals facilitate career decision-making. They aid individuals or groups in determining jobs that are best suited to their needs, skills, and interests. In some cases, they may also help clients who are already employed to improve their skills, including how to manage work-related stress. This can also stretch to providing support to individuals who have lost their jobs. For those seeking jobs, they also provide skills such as practicing for an interview and developing a meaningful and acceptable resume.

• Marriage and family counselors – these professionals offer a wide range of services for couples and families. They help couples and families deal with social issues, emotional problems, and in some cases, mental health treatment. They do conduct counseling sessions with couples or the entire family unit.
• Addictions and behavioral counselors – these professionals work with people suffering from addictions. These may range from drugs, alcohol, eating disorder, to gambling.
• Mental health counselors – these professionals work with people suffering from mental or psychological distress such as anxiety, phobias, depression, grief, esteem issues, trauma, substance abuse, and related issues. They aim at promoting mental health. In treatment centers or facilities, counselors have physicians, psychologists, social workers, and other health care professionals as their treatment team.
• Rehabilitation counselors – these professionals are engaged with individuals suffering from physical or emotional disabilities. Rehabilitation counselors provide services such as evaluation of the strengths and limitations of clients. The goal is to facilitate the rehabilitation process and prevent relapse.
• Genetics counselors – these professionals operate in a very specialized context of dealing with genetic information for individuals and the decisions that come with it. The common area here is counseling parents who are concerned with determining if their potential offspring might be at risk for being born with an inherited disorder, or individual adults themselves who may be at risk of developing a genetic disease such as heart disease and breast cancer. They help individuals and families to make informed decisions about their health and to assist them in finding the services that best meet their needs.

Rights, Responsibilities, and Accountabilities of Counselors

As registered and licensed professionals, counselors are protected. They are governed by scientific theories, practices, and processes as well as professional standards and ethics.

• They are responsible for the practice of their profession in accordance with their mandates and professional guidelines and ethics.
• They are accountable to their clients, the professional body, and the government.
• It is critical that the counselor and the client fully understand the nature of the concerns, which leads to a contract to take action on a mutually agreed upon problem.

Code of Ethics of Counselors

• As in all professional practices in applied social sciences, counselors must observe confidentiality at all times. Without confidentiality, clients cannot trust the counselors and therefore make the profession impossible to practice.

• The code of ethics also states that counselors live and work in accordance with the professional standards of conduct set forth for the practice of guidance and counseling. They should be people of high moral standing.

Four Overall Ethical Principles that Subsume a Number of Specific Ethical Standards:

Principle 1: Respect for the rights and dignity of the client

• Guidance counselors honor and promote the fundamental rights, moral and cultural values, dignity, and worth of clients. They respect clients’ rights to privacy, confidentiality, self-determination and autonomy, consistent with the law.

Principle 2: Competence

• Guidance counselors maintain and update their professional skills. They recognize the limits of their expertise, engage in self-care, and seek support and supervision to maintain the standard of their work. They offer only those services for which they are qualified by education, training, and experience.

Principle 3: Responsibility

• Guidance counselors are aware of their professional responsibility to act in a trustworthy, reputable, and accountable manner toward clients, colleagues, and the community in which they work and live. They avoid doing harm, take responsibility for their professional actions; and adopt a systematic approach to resolving ethical dilemmas.

Principle 4: Integrity

• Guidance counselors seek to promote integrity in their practice. They represent themselves accurately and treat others with honesty, straightforwardness, and fairness. They deal actively with conflicts of interest,avoid exploiting others, and are alert to inappropriate behavior on the part of colleagues.

The Code of Ethics goes into specifics to detail professional behavior from respect for fundamental rights, moral and cultural values, dignity and worth of clients to respect for rights to privacy, confidentiality, self-determination and autonomy, consistent with the law, and ensuring that the client understands and consents to whatever professional action they propose. Hence, Codes define parameters for general respect, privacy and confidentiality, informed consent and freedom of consent, and recognition of limits of competence.

Source: Disciplines and Ideas in the Applied Social Sciences, Elias M. Sampa (2017) by Rex Book Store, pp. 25-32

photo credits: google.com

Lesson 2: The Discipline of Counseling

The Discipline of Counseling

– is a relationship characterized by the application of one or more psychological theories and a recognized set of communication skills appropriate to a client’s intimate concerns, problems, or aspirations.

Who are these clients?

These clients include those who are demoralized, distressed or in a negative state of mind about their situation or context. Counseling can be delivered through face-to-face dialogue,group work, telephone or email, or other written materials.

Counseling

– “the process of guiding a person during a stage of life when reassessments or decisions have to be made about himself or herself in his/her life course” (Collins Dictionary of Sociology)

• As a discipline, it is allied to psychology and deals with normal responses to normal life events, which may sometimes create stress for some people who, in turn, choose to ask for help and support.
• It is generally a non-clinical intervention.
• It is not to be confused with psychiatry.
• is widely considered the heart of the guidance services in schools
• also utilizes appraisal and assessment to aid counseling by gathering information about clients through the use of psychological tests non-psychometric devices.
• Psychometrics- is a branch of psychology that deals with the design, administration, and interpretation of quantitative tests for the measurement of psychological variables such as intelligence, aptitude, interests, and personality traits.

Counselors

-are professionally trained and certified to perform counseling

-their job is to provide advice or guidance in decision-making in emotionally significant situations by helping clients explore and understand their worlds and discover better ways and well-informed choices in resolving an emotional or interpersonal problem

Counselors  exist in a wide range of areas of expertise; marriage, family, youth, student and other life transitions dealing with managing of issues of loss and death, retirement, divorce, parenting, and bankruptcy.

Contexts of Counseling

Counseling is affected by the context and the surrounding g factors. They are explored here as part of the basic concepts of counseling that are very important to consider.

• Peers as Context – friends’ attitudes, norms, and behaviors have a strong influence on adolescents. Many personal issues are often introduced to the individual by their peers.
• Neighborhood as Context – the interactions between the family and its neighborhood as immediate context are also important to consider. A family functions within a particular neighborhood. The behavioral problems in this particular neighborhood require that families work against crime and social isolation that may impact them.
• Culture as Context – culture provided meaning and coherence of life to any orderly life such as community or organization. It is the source of norms, values, symbols, and language which provide the basis for the normal functioning of an individual. Understanding the cultural context of a client makes it easier for a counselor to appreciate the nature of their struggles as well as their cultural conditioning that informs certain personal characteristics.
• Counseling as Context – regardless of a therapeutic approach in use, the counseling situation in itself is a context. There is a deliberate specific focus, a set of procedures, rules,expectations, experiences, and a way of monitoring progress and determining results. Counseling can therefore be affected by the counseling context.

From the counseling context, other success factors should be managed well so as to contribute toward the success of engagement.

• Client Factors – The client factors are everything that a client brings to the counseling context. They bring so much to counseling context and therefore it remains imperative that they are considered as an active part of the process. Very often, the expectations and attitude of the client define the result of a counseling process and experience.
• Counselor Factors – The personality, skills, and personal qualities of a counselor can significantly impact the outcomes of the counseling relationship. The counselor’s personal style and qualities can make the interventions successful.
• Contextual Factors – The context in which counseling takes place can define the outcomes. Counselors are therefore concerned with the environment and atmosphere where to conduct the sessions. Ideally, counseling should take place in a quiet, warm, and comfortable place away from any distraction.
• Process Factors – The process factors constitute the actual counseling undertaking.

Goals and Scope of Counseling

• Counseling is aimed at empowering a client.
• The general goal is to lead an individual client or group to self-emancipation in relation to a felt problem.
• In the process, the client should: attain insight and understanding of oneself; achieve better self-awareness; look at oneself with increased self-acceptance and appreciation; and be able to manage oneself positively.

Client empowerment means that they develop skills and abilities that they require self-management and improved motivation toward actions that are good for one’s self and develop a positive outlook toward the past leading to some sense of closure and attainment of relative inner and outer harmony resulting to improvement in relationships with family, friends, colleagues and others.

The scope of counseling is wide. Essentially, it involves application of some psychological theories and recognized communication skills. It does not deal with clinical cases such as mental illness. It is a professional relationship that requires an eventual closure and termination of the counselee-counselor relationship.

Sources: Disciplines and Ideas in the Applied Social Sciences (Elias M. Stampa, 2017 by Rex Bookstore, pp 10-14),

google.com

Definition of Social Science

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Reference: DISS book

Pamilihan at Pamilihan

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Pamilihan at Pamahalan ppt.

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Mga Modelo ng Paikot na Daloy ng Ekonomiya (Buod)

Mga Aktor sa Paikot na Daloy ng Ekonomiya	Bahaging Ginagampanan sa Paikot na Daloy
Sambahayan	Konsyumer ng mga tapos na produkto at kalakal na nilikha ng bahay-kalakal Suplayer ng mga salik ng produksiyon
Bahay-Kalakal	Konsyumer ng mga salik ng produksyon na nagmumula sa sambahayan Suplayer ng mga tapos na produkto at kalakal
Pamahalaan	Nangongolekta ng buwis sa sambahayan at bahay-kalakal Nagkakaloob ng serbisyong pampubliko (transfer payments)
Panlabas na Sektor	Nagbebenta sa ibang bansa (Export) Bumibili sa ibang bansa (Import)
Mga Uri ng Pamilihan sa Paikot na Daloy ng Ekonomiya	Bahaging Ginagampanan sa Paikot na Daloy
Pamilihan ng mga Salik ng Produksiyon	Nagbebenta ang sambahayan ng mga salik ng produksiyon (input – lupa, kapital, paggawa, entreprenyur) Bumibili ang bahay-kalakal ng mga salik ng produksiyon (input – lupa, kapital, paggawa, entreprenyur)
Pamilihan ng mga Kalakal at Paglilingkod	Nagbebenta ang bahay-kalakal ng mga tapos na produkto at paglilingkod Bumibili ang sambahayan ng mga tapos na produkto at paglilingkod
Pamilihang Pinansyal	Nag-iimpok ang sambahayan Umuutang ang bahay-kalakal

Mga Inilalarawan ng Paikot na Daloy ng Ekonomiya

Unang Modelo : Simpleng Ekonomiya

Ikalawang Modelo : Sistema ng Pamilihan

Ikatlong Modelo : Pananalapi (Pamilihang Pinansiyal)

Ikaapat Modelo : Pamahalaan

Ikalimang Modelo : Panlabas na Sektor

Ang Ikalimang modelo ng paikot na daloy ng ekonomiya ay naglalarawan ng isang bukas na ekonomiya kung saan ang bansa ay nakikipag-ugnayan sa panlabas na sektor upang matugunan ang mga pangangailangan nito.

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Mga Institusyong Pinansiyal: Bangko, Bahay-sanglaan, at Kooperatiba

Mga Institusyong Pananalapi

• nagsisilbing tagapamagitan sa mga transaksiyong may kinalaman sa pananalapi

Sektor ng pananalapi – ay binubuo ng mga bangkong institusyon at mga hindi bangkong institusyon subalit nagsasagawa ng mga tungkuling may kaugnayan sa pananalapi

Mga Bangkong Institusyon

1. Bangkong Komersyal (Commercial Banks) – maaaring pribadong lokal o dayuhang pag-aari. Ito ay binubuo ng mga malaking bangko na maaaring tumanggap ng deposito sa publiko. Ito ay may kakayahan ding magbukas ng iba’t ibang sangay sa buong bansa.                                  Dalawang Uri ng Bangkong Komersiyal   

• Non-expanded commercial bank – nagkakaloob lamang ng pautang na babayaran sa loob lamang ng maikling panahon, hal. Philippine Veterans Bank, Bank of Commerce
• Expanded commercial bank – may mas malawak na gawain tulad ng pagpapairal ng mga credit card at pagpapautang na maaaring bayaran sa matagal na panahon, hal. UCPB, RCBC, BPI

2. Bangko sa Pagtitipid (Thirft Banks) – binubuo ito ng mga bangko na pangunahing layunin ay humikayat sa pag-iimpok at pagtitipid. Ito ay nagkakaloob ng pondo para sa agrikultura at industriya sa makatuwirang interes.

       Ang mga sumusund ay kabilang sa thrift bank:

• Stock Savings and Loan Association – tumatanggap ng impok ng mga kasapi, nagpapahiram ng salapi, nagbibigay ng dividend sa mga kasapi
• Savings and Mortgage Bank – tumatanggap ng deposito at sangla ng mga mamamayan
• Private Development Bank – nagpapahiram ng puhunan sa small and medium scale industries

3. Bangkong Rural (Rural Banks) – itinatag sa ilalim ng Republic Act 720 o ang Rural Banks Act. Itinatag upang tulungan ang mga maliliit na mamimili at maliliit na prodyuser, tulad ng mga magsasaka at mangingisda. Layunin nitong mapabuti ang kalagayang panlipunan at pangkabuhayan sa mga kanayunan.

Mga Espesyal na Bangko

• mga bangkong pag-aari ng pamahalaan, ito ay nasa ilalim ng pangangasiwa ng Bangko Sentral ng Pilipinas, ang mga bangkong ito ay may natatangi o espesyal na gawaing tutugon sa mga tiyak na layunin ng pamahalaan. Hal: Land Bank of the Philippines, Development Bank of the Philippines 

Mga Institusyong Hindi Bangko

• mga institusyon ng pananalpi na hindi maituturing na bangko subalit nagsasagawa ng mga tungkuling may kaugnayan sa pananalapi

1. Government Service Insurance System (GSIS) – nagbibigay ng life insurance sa mga kawani o empleyado ng pamahalaan, maging sa mga kawani ng mga korporasyong pag-aari at kontrolado ng pamahalaan.
2. Social Security System (SSS) – nagbibigay ng life insurance sa mga empleyado ng pribadong kompanya
3. Pag-IBIG Fund (Pagtutulungan sa Kinabukasan: Ikaw, Bangko, Industriya at Gobyerno) – layuning matulungan ang bawat kasapi lalo na sa pabahay (housing)
4. Kooperatiba – may layuning panlipunan at pangkabuhayang pagtutulungan at pagkakaisa
5. Bahay-Sanglaan (Pawnshop) – itinatag upang magbigay ng pautang sa mga taong nangangailangan ng salapi sa pangmadaliang panahon.

Essential Question: Bakit itinuturing na mahalaga ang papel na ginagampanan ng mga institusyon ng pananalapi sa lipunan?

Ekonomiks: Mga Konsepto at Aplikasyon

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Sektor ng Industriya

Sektor ng Industriya (powerpoint presentation)

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Ekonomiks:Mga Konsepto at Aplikasyon 
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Iba’t Ibang Estruktura ng Pamilihan

Ang pamilihan ay isang kaayusan kung saan may interaksiyon ang mga mamimili at nagtitinda upang magpalitan ng iba’t ibang bagay.

Dalawang estruktura ng pamilihan:
• Pamilihang may ganap na kompetisyon — sa pamilihang ito, walang kakayahan ang sinuman sa bahay-kalakal at mamimili na kontrolin ang presyo. ang mga produktong ipinagbibili ay walang pagkakaiba. Ang mga mamimili at nagtitinda ay may ganap na kaalaman sa kalagayan ng pamilihan.
• Pamilihang may hindi ganap na kompetisyon- sa pamilihang ito, nakokontrol ng isa o iilang kompanya ang presyo ng produkto.
 Monopolyo – isang uri ng pamilihan na may iisa lamang bahay-kalakal na gumagawa ng produkto na walang malapit na kahalili.
 Monopsonyo – ito ang pamilihang isa lamang ang mamimili. Ito ay may lubos na kapangyarihan upang kontrolin ang presyo.
Halimbawa ay ang Pamahalaan- itinuturing na isang monopsonist
 Oligopolyo — isang estruktura ng pamilihan na may maliit na bilang ng bahay-kalakal na nagbebenta ng magkakatulad o magkakaugnay na produkto.
Halimbawa ay ang industriya ng langis
      Cartel – isang organisasyon ng malalayang bahay-kalakal na gumagawa ng magkakatulad na produkto na sama-samang  kumikilos upang itaas ang presyo at takdaan ang dami ng gagawing produkto.
 Monopolistikong Kompetisyon – maraming kalahok na bahay-kalakal; ang uri ng produktong ipinagbibili as magkakapareho ngunit hindi magkakahawig. Ito ang product differentiation.
Halimbawa ang produktong toothpaste (colgate, hapee, close-up)

 

 

 

 

 

 

PAMILIHAN AT PAMAHALAAN

Ang pagpapanatili ng katatagan ng pamilihan ang layunin ng maliit at hindi aktibistang pamahalaan. Isasagawa ito sa pagtataguyod ng ganap na kompetisyon.

Tatlo ang gampanin ng malaki at aktibong pamahalaan:

1. Ang pagpapanatili ng kompetisyon – pagbuo ng mga batas at programang pangkaunlaran, pagpapalawak ng kompetisyon sa pamilihan
2. Pagpapalit sa allocative role ng pamilihan – pagpili ng mga hakbangin sa pagsisinop ng pinagkukunang-yaman, muling pamamahagi ng kita at yaman ng isang bansa sa mga mamamayan, pagpapatatag at pagpapatibay ng pambansang ekonomiya
3. Ang pagsasaayos ng distribusyon ng mga pinagkukunang-yaman (distributive role)—paliitin ang antas ng inequality sa pamilihan

Pamamaraan ng Panghihimasok ng Pamahalaan:

• Tight industrial regulatory regime – pagsasaayos ng presyo sa iisang atas lamang; ipinatutupad ng pamahalaan sa paniniwala na bubuti ang kapakanan ng mamamayan sa mga piling bahay-kalakal.
• Industrial Deregulatory Regime—pagbubukas ng industriya sa kompetisyon
• Paglahok ng pamahalaan sa industriya
• Pagbubuwis – humahalili sa presyo ang buwis sa pagtatakda ng panlipunang pagpapahalaga sa pagkonsumo at paglikha ng produkto
• Tax Exemption at Subsidy
o Tax exemption – ang mahihirap ay hindi pinagbabayad ng buwis
  o Subsidy – tulong-pinansyal ng pamahalaan para sa mahihirap
• Programang Pangkaunlaran
• Sequestration – nilalayon nito na itigil ang pagsasamantala ng bahay-kalakal sa mga mamimili at kapwa bahay-kalakal
• Price Ceiling at Price Floor
o Price ceiling (price control) – pinakamataas na presyo na itinatakda ng pamahalaan para sa isang produkto
o Price floor (price support)– ang tawag sa pinakamababang presyo na itinatakda ng pamahalaan para sa isang produkto

Pinagkunan: Ekonomiks IV

Photo credits: google.com